نشریه بحوث فی اللغه العربیه
سال پانزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 28، بهار و تابستان 1402)

‘Argument’ is one of the topics that has attracted the attention of writers despite its age among researchers. What shows the importance of this topic is the persuasive goals that the argument pursues; in this way, the speaker should plan his speech by identifying the horizon of his audience's expectations to convince them, and finally present a speech that fits the audience’s conditions and needs. With the passage of time, this topic has gone beyond rhetoric and controversy and entered many literary, linguistic, and rhetorical topics.The present research is based on the theory of Shayim Birelman and Titikah to investigate the means of argument and how they are used in Khwarizmi’s satirical letter to Ibn Badihi. It seeks to answer the following two research questions:1) What argument tools did Khwarizmi use in this letter and how did it appear?2) How is his success or failure in this pilgrimage process evaluated?He has used all kinds of arguments in his satirical letters. The pseudo-logical arguments which are expressed in conditional, comparative, preferential, and comparative styles have been used the most. In the meantime, he has made the most use of people's personalities and ridiculed their moral flaws. Sometimes he has turned to excess in them, in such a way that in his reprimanding speech, which is similar to praise and praise, he attributes all the flaws and ugly behaviors to his audience.He has also relied on arguments based on the structure of reality, including the argument of the cause, the argument of person, and the argument of authority. Many historical, cultural, mythological, and religious figures have dominated his letters to humiliate his audience through the style of comparison and blame similar to praise. It is worth mentioning that Khwarizmi tries to highlight the difference between the words and actions of his audience by choosing negative or positive mood adjectives and external characteristics. Khwarizmi has used the argument of the person and his actions to achieve this purpose. Of course, the effectiveness of this argument is weak because it changes in different conditions and positions. Among the various arguments used by Khwarizmi, reference to pseudo-logical arguments is more effective compared to other arguments, but Khwarizmi did not rely on them much.He enjoys more freedom in his satirical letters. That is why he has used the arguments created for the structure of reality, especially similes, to show the contradiction of his audience's behavior in speech and action. In describing his faults with nasty descriptions and disgusting images, he has exaggerated to take any chance of reflection and defense from his opponent and not give him a chance to hear his answer. Since his goal is to arouse the emotions and feelings of the audience; therefore, his reasoning is based on excitement and tends to fallacy. Relying on social, cultural, literary values, and commonalities in the Arab society is also another argument used by Khwarizmi.

The rhythmic structure of any language arises from its phonetic, morphological, and lexical structure. In Arabic, prosodic studies are related to the knowledge of word texture and syllable sequence. Therefore, the study of phonetic syllables in prosodic studies is significant in terms of structure and metre and has a significant effect on language memorization. The unlimited potential of Arabic has made it a rhythmic, balanced, and harmonious language, which distinguishes it from other languages. Due to its wide range, the rhythm has different tendencies among researchers, except that we do not find any research on the rhythmic effect of "Mu’talat" and its role in the rhythmic delicacy and the enrichment of its structure. Accordingly, researchers in the present study investigated the effect of ‘Mu'tallat’ in the formulation of Arabic syllables and the relationship of vowels in the softness of rhythm and the transmission of moderation and harmony in the rhythmic formation of the text. The study sheds light on the effect of ‘Mu'tallat’ in enriching external music in Arabic poetry, as they affect the formulation of poetic syllables by deleting and replacing vowels in them. The Arabic syllables and their succession have a clear impact on the rhythm of poetry and its weights. The research aims to answer the following questions: What are the effects that vowels leave on the mechanisms of external rhythm? What is the role of the metaphors in the accidental and rhyming activations in the external rhythm of Arabic poetry? The questions posed led to the diversification of the research into two main sections: The first section presents a brief definition of the main components in this research, namely syllables, rhythm, and vowels. The second section monitors the effect of mutilations in the formulation of syllables and the rhythm of external Arabic poetry by deleting and substituting vowels. Arab linguists have named vowels for the letters “a-الف/ w/واو- y/یاء” among the twenty-eight letters of Arabic. They have also named those words that contain one of these three letters in their origins as ‘Mu'tallat’. As for the rest of the Arabic letters, they called them the correct letters or the correct consonants. Thus, sound verbs, past or present, abstract or plural, are devoid of vowels except when some of the nominative pronouns related to them join. If the Arabic language consisted only of sound verbs, it would be an annoying and ugly language to hear. One of the most prominent features of ‘Mu'tallat’ is the enrichment of language and poetry with soft letters, especially in verbs. Ali Younes conducted a cross-sectional study in poetry and prose, and it was found that the rate of use of long syllables exceeds the rate of use of short and elongated syllables (see: Younes, 1993, pp. 83-98). Accordingly, the role of ‘Mu'tallat’ in the Arabic poetry metering system emerges where the Arab poet finds a way to deceive in organizing the passages he needs in poetry. It is worth noting that the Arabic language does not have the succession of similar sound syllables in the form of the correct past tense form consisting of three short syllables such as ‘kataba’. The Arabic language tends to get rid of this by using weak verbs. This is like ‘vafā, ramā, qazā’ in the weak and defective verbs and ‘qāla, khāfa’ in the “ajwaf” verbs, and the original forms of them are qavala, khavefa, as well as their present tense. The researchers reached by extrapolation, in ancient and modern times, to the effect of vowels in the letter of rhyme at the end of a poetic verse, as if it was a linguistic break for the poet and reader. The elongated syllable may appear in some etymological or grammatical changes, as shown in the collision of two static letters. At that time, Arabic tended to get rid of this type of syllable by converting it to the closed long syllable, either by deleting or moving. This syllable is one of the mostly used and common syllables in Arabic. This often happened in weak verbs, the vowels are removed from them, for ease of pronunciation and to get rid of heaviness in speech. Therefore, these ‘Mu'tallats’ have a great impact on the construction of poetic syllables and the elements of the meter of poetry. The authors of the present study found that the relationship between the two sciences of prosody and morphology is evident in the language. It is a meeting point between them, as the rhythmic structure emanates from the morphological and phonetic structure. Mu'tallat is one of the great energies in the Arabic language that the poet uses as he pleases while preserving the structure of the linguistic and prosody word. Mu'tallat has a great impact on enriching language and poetry with the change and deletion of vowels, as they affect the formulation of Arabic syllables. The sequence of syllables affects the classification of meters and the rhythm of the text. It has a clear effect on forming the long open syllable by switching the vowel. Also, its role in the formulation of the closed long syllable by deleting the vowel is clear in the present participle “ajwaf” verbs, the past “ajwaf” verb connected to the pronouns, the imperative form of the “ajwaf”, and so on. To get rid of the rejected syllable in some combinations, these two long syllables are common syllables in Arabic, and they help facilitate the pronunciation process.

In this research, the indications of Qur’anic conjugations were addressed according to Ibn al-Zubair al-Gharnati’s book entitled Angel of Interpretation, in which various connotations were mentioned, with an attempt to negate the repetitions of similar verses by clarifying the subtle differences in their implications following a descriptive approach. It was also an analytical study considering presenting the author’s viewpoint in his defense of similar verses in the Holy Qur’an. After explaining Ibn al-Zubair’s approach and intention for writing his book, the indications were pointed out based on the specific places they were included, as well as the different comments, purposes, and sympathies. Such indications as the precedence and delay, weakness, difference in plural forms, addition of a letter to a verse and its vacancy in another, definition and denial, generalization and detailed description, brevity and lengthening, application of an appropriate case, and occasion of descent were taken into account with regard to what a surah was built upon so as to negate repetition in the Holy Qur’an and refer to the meanings of Quranic inflections. The importance of this research stemmed from the fact that the subject of conjugation in the Qur’an had not received a lot of attention with an appropriate definition in linguistic studies at the levels of theory and application and that it contained a response to the skeptic views towards considering this holy book as the word of God with the claim that its verses would not have been repeated if it were from God. The results showed that conjugation was a Quranic approach and a policy to explain specific meanings, besides being one of the aspects of miracles in the Holy Qur’an. Ibn al-Zubair was almost the first scholar to complete the efforts of his predecessors in this field through what he mentioned in his book of indications, thus refuting the skeptics and slanderers’ views about the book of God.

Dialects  vary in their breadth and diversity. Arabic  has varied dialects according to the spread of Arabs in many tribes in the past and in many countries recently. For example, the Iraqis like other Arabs are united by a dialect belonging to the group of dialects of the eastern Arab world. Sarcasm in poetry is a way of expression, in which the poet uses special words that indicate the opposite of what he exactly means. It is similar to a pun. The intent of sarcasm is criticism, showing faults and exposing negativity. Ahmad Matar was excelled in this style, taking advantage of the irony. He was a satirical poet. His banners were the most prominent manifestations of sarcasm. They were called by this name because they resembled the advertising banner in terms of shortness and abbreviation in pronunciation and expression, in addition to their functional role that resembled the role of advertising banners in distinguishing mistakes and inciting revolution. The issue of intensifying meanings in a small focus requires a superior literary ability that Ahmed Matar had. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no study is done on Ahmed Matar's use of vernacular styles in his poetry despite the presence of some meanings that could not be explained by anything other than vernacular style. The Saudi writer and poet, Faeq Munif, put a bibliography of studies and critical articles on Ahmed Matar's poetry inn his blog, which he said he collected from the Internet, distributed among (10) university theses, (21) studies, and (10) critical press articles. It varied between research journals and university theses, some of which were published as books. To what extent did Ahmed Matar use colloquial styles in his banners? How diverse were these styles and the reasons for this; and to what extent did it have harmony with his poetic attitude? The aim of this research was to extract the colloquial styles that Ahmed Matar employed in his banners, but not to investigate all these styles. Only some samples were analyzed in this research. It was necessary to first describe these linguistic phenomena for analyzing them and extracting the required samples from them; thus, a descriptive-analytical approach was adopted.Colloquial language sometimes approaches the classical language in certain aspects and departs from it in other aspects. However, the most important thing that distinguishes colloquial from classical language is the removal of linguistic signals from the end of words or what is related to the grammar that controls relations in sentences.The Iraqi dialect shares the dialects of the eastern Arab world, including the Gulf dialects, in a large percentage with little differences between them. Notably, when we say this dialect is Iraqi, it does not mean that there is the same style, performance, and vocabulary in every Iraqi city and village. Yet, those differences are so few that we can give them one name that distinguishes that dialect from other dialects.The Iraqi dialect has had an influence on the language of many Iraqi poets, so they began to borrow some of its vocabulary. Yet, some poets, including Ahmed Matar, have been more influenced by the Iraqi dialect compared to other contemporary poets of Iraq. He used it in his poems in general and his seven banners in particular in various forms and styles, as well as a colloquial word instead of a formal word. This style was considered the most used style in the banners of Ahmed Matar. It either overshadowed the rest of the styles or overlapped them. His metonymy style included a metaphor for a word, whether as an adjective, descriptive, or otherwise, and a metaphor for a meaning or concept.The words used by Ahmad Matar were eloquent in terms of appearance and structure and colloquial in terms of use. This feature was applied to the overwhelming number of vocabulary of the Iraqi dialect. However, this did not mean that the recipient could have access the depth of Ahmed Matar's purposes without having knowledge of the styles of the Iraqi dialect or the dialects that Ahmed Matar employed with some of their styles.After we studied a number of colloquial styles that Ahmed Matar employed in his banners, we reached some results that are summarized as follows:The most important finding of this study was that the colloquial language was not outside the classical language or was alien to it. Rather, we could enrich the classical language with new styles of the vernacular language, which was what Ahmed Matar applied in his banners. We dealt with a fragment of it, while there were many fragments that needed to be studied.The fact that contemporary poets appropriately employed limited and specific methods of Arabic dialects confirmed the necessity of investing these dialects for enriching classical Arabic language at all levels. Today, we are in need to study folk poetry or Zajal artistically inspired by its methods.Ahmed Matar was creative in employing colloquial styles in his poetry. He was keen in the smooth flow of his speech, so it did not cause a shock to the reader to disturb him with the poem musically and emotionally. Rather, all his words and colloquial structures were in the appropriate place. His slang was not a purpose, but rather a means to better explain the meaning. This indicated the poet’s literary ability and the greatness of the Arabic language in all its dialects. This might explain the reason why researchers have not dared study the vernacular language in Ahmed Matar’s banners.In making use of colloquial styles in his banners, Ahmed Matar resorted to the style of displacement. Despite his ability to benefit from the eloquent styles, his literary ability qualified him for this. He found that the use of vernacular styles was more effective and had the greatest impact on the recipient.The colloquial styles that Ahmad Matar resorted to were not specific to Iraqis alone, but most Arabs knew them or, at least, understood them and did not find any difficulty in accepting them.Ahmad Matar was an Iraqi poet and it was natural that he benefited from the Iraqi colloquial styles, but he was not satisfied with that and benefited from some Arabic colloquial styles, especially Egyptian and Syrian or say Levantine styles, as well. Ahmad Matar had most likely learned some of Levantine colloquial techniques as a result of his long friendship with Naji al-Ali, so he employed them in his banners.All the styles employed by Ahmed Matar had their own context-specific reasons. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze these contexts to determine the poet's goals, purposes, and methods.

Graphic materials like pictures, charts, tables, maps, etc. used in educational books are important and effective methods of learning for all levels of students. Since such materials are highly effective, careful attention should be devoted to their selection. Some models are proposed for anlaysis of graphic materials one of which is the Slough and McTigue model. It has three bases, each with its own variants, upon which educational books could be analyzed. The first base  examines variants such as the relationship between the reader and the text and also the quantitative relationship between pictures and texts. The second base considers the three variants of combining colors, analyzing pictures with regard to their design, and matching pictures with their texts. Finally, the third base addresses factors such as the position of pictures and the texts with regard to each other, the title of pictures, and also the semantic relationship between the texts and the pictures. In this study, a descriptive method based on the Selog and McTigo model has been used to analyze the pictures in the Arabic books of the second grade of high school in the field of humanities. With regard to the relationship between the texts and the reader, the texts are mostly presented actively in these books because in most cases the author demands the students to participate in answering a question and gets more active in the process of learning. The other outcome of the evaluation of these books with respect to the first base is the number of pictures that are not in proportionate with the number of texts. As the number of pictures is more than texts, the process of learning is facilitated in these books. Evaluating these books with regard to the second base shows that pictures are mostly colorful. This factor could be really influential in motivating the students to study the books.Moreover, it was found that with regard to the categorization of the pictures, the authors have mostly used visual images in these books since they are really effective in conveying the message of each lesson and exerting attraction to the books. Pictures are also situated mostly beside the texts. Only in a few cases at the beginning of each lesson, they were situated on a separate page. In these few cases, the author has created a picture at the beginning of each lesson and then has followed that by a page that explains the picture so that the students’ minds are prepared to comprehend all the meanings and their relationships. This being the case, it is concluded that most of the pictures of these books are to convey the message of the text, even though, in a few cases, pictures are used to solely imply a point. As such, the author evades to directly refer to a picture or determine a title for the pictures.

The present study investigates the operative speech of Sayed Hasan Nasrallah and deals with the deliberative dimensions that appeared in his speech. It mainly discusses the character through the signals and their types (i.e. personal, spatial, temporal, and social signals). Moreover, the study explains pragmatism and its importance in linguistic analysis. The speech samples of the study include nine speeches in 2008 that revolve around the victory over the Zionist enemy and its retreat from Lebanon. Among the selections, there are some religious speeches that interfere (overlap) with political ones. These speeches uncover the intellect of Sayed Hasan Nasrallah that relies on the religious and cultural inheritance related to Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) and Ahl Albait (AS). His argumentative speech attracts his followers (i.e. the public) and tries to convince his rivals to reach his purpose of reviving the nation and holding its beliefs and aims based on cognitive bases.The two research questions posed in the study are as follows:What is the most important deliberative dimension in Sayed Hasan Nasrallah’s speech?How did Sayed Hasan Nasrallah employ the elements of pragmatism in influencing his public?Pragmatism enables us to set a new method for the analysis of the linguistic issues of the speakers. Many topics have emerged from pragmatism. Although they may be different in their starting points, they agree in the fact they all deal with linguistic use in the light of the context. We can sum up the most significant concepts of pragmatism as indicatives, speech verbs, conversational imperatives, and inclusions of saying. As the study of all these concepts needs a wide purview, we had enough examples in this research by types indicators and speech verbs in the speeches of Sayed Hasan Nasrallah according to John Searle’s theory, in order to reach a concrete result.The results of the study show that the language in the speech of Sayed Hasan Nasrallah is declarative, seeking a definite goal linked to the daily life of the community and its future plans. It holds the elements of stability without the cancelation of others or rejecting it. That is why he always asks for discussion and understanding in order to reach a common ground and solutions for the crises the country is passing by. His speech seeks the implantation of definite values, proving a vision, or dissuading the receiver from a specific issue. It includes a series of partial compound mental operations that go together in a specific communicative context, and in a frame of a common language between Sayed Hasan Nasrallah and the public, till the communication function is realized. His speech influences the receiver, persuading him to grab the content of the message or the intention of the sender.Sayed Hasan Nasrallah uses multiple language formations. The concept of deliberation has a big share in the speech of Sayed Hasan Nasrallah, ranging from directives, personal referrals, time and place, to social signals, and ending with verbal actions. Deliberation focuses on the producer and receiver of the speech, the context of speech production, and the scope of reception. To understand spatial, temporal, personal, social, and other directive elements used by Sayed Hasan Nasrallah, the authors of this study used the context in order to frame the speech and describe it in the required dimensions. It helps in understanding the speech background, and the different relations overwhelming it. This makes the receiver ready, pensive, and aware of the dimensions of the speech, in addition to the verbal actions that express the intentionality of Sayed Hasan Nasrallah. This also makes the speech an executive force when it becomes a behavior.Directives contribute to the establishment of the faith and social relationship between Sayed Hasan Nasrallah and his public. It also indicates belonging to a group of resistant sacrifices against a disappointed and languid group. The combination of the speaker and the addressee is also shown, where the public sees themselves as a sacrificing and resistant group that is different and unique from those on the other side.  There is a group of contextual factors that control the use of social directives. The first is the respected status of the characters about whom Sayed Hasan Nasrallah talks and their position. The second factor is the nature and status of the relation between Sayed Hasan Nasrallah and these characters, as well as the relation between the public and these characters. These directives help to understand the dimensions and purposes Sayed Nassrallah seeks to strengthen the bonds between the leadership and the public, attracting all to continue the path of these leaders. The expressive verbs in Sayed Nassrallah’s speech always reveal his anger towards the Israeli enemy, compassion for the public, and pride in the martyrs. Informing verbs are also among the widely used elements in Sayed Hasan Nasrallah’s speech that serve two executive purposes. They are apparently descriptive but can be analyzed in terms of the verbal action format. Next, they help us know the dimensions and goals of uttering them.

Language as a means of transferring thought has been the subject of research by various thinkers up to the present. In recent decades, however, language has become an important topic for research and study. Linguistic studies can be followed in two ways. The first is areas of linguistic studies that examine a particular language, such as syntactic science. Another aspect is sciences that study language as a general category. These sciences methodologically are two types as well: 1) sciences that consider language as a scientific subject and study it in an empirical manner, such as linguistics, and 2) those that regard language as a philosophical issue and consider it rationally. The philosophy of language is responsible for expressing the general aspects of language. These aspects do not relate to a particular language but are true for any language. The language of the Holy Qur’an is an innate language. The Holy Qur’an does not only have innate content, but the language used in the Holy Qur’an is an innate language as well. It is a pragmatic language, a language in which a person evaluates the validity of anything in its practical and concrete result in practice. The text-based communication in the Holy Qur’an will be understood by relying on such a language, namely the pragmatic language. It was therefore concluded that the Qur’anic language is a pragmatic language in the sense of an existential language. A language that is compatible with the nature of human existence. The observance of morphological and syntactic rules makes the language used in a text and dialogue meaningful, but understanding the existential and anthropological rules makes the text and dialogue understandable. Hence, the language of the Holy Qur’an is a pragmatic language, an existential one.Communication refers to a process during which a message is sent between the speaker and the audience so that the audience tries to analyze and interpret that discourse by considering the context and the conditions of speech. The language communication theory, expressed by Roman Jakobsen, is based on linguistic codes that the audience participates in deciphering those codes during a verbal conversation. In addition, this theory is based on the social roles of language. Jakobson distinguishes six communication functions, each associated with a dimension or factor of the communication process: 1) referential (contextual information), 2) aesthetic/poetic (auto-reflection), 3) emotive (self-expression), 4) conative (vocative or imperative addressing of receiver), 5) phatic (checking channel working), and 6) metalingual (checking code working). In the present study, using the descriptive-analytical method and referring to Jakobsen's theory, the linguistic connection in the discourse of Surah Hud (PBUH) is investigated. This surah is one of the surahs that have pragmatic codes and can only be interpreted and analyzed through the process of communication.The results of the research show that the referential (36%) and emotional (25%) roles are the most frequent linguistic roles in the discourse of Surah Hud (PBUH). The difference in the frequency of these two linguistic roles indicates that the discourse of this surah is mostly based on informing, promoting, and expressing events (referential role). It expresses the inner states of the speaker (mostly prophets). So, by using verbs that indicate the speaker’s intrinsic and inner feelings and affairs, his feelings in connection with the divine message are revealed (emotional role). The final result of the research shows that in the discourse of Surah Hud, the linguistic communication roles of Jakobsen's theory have been used to a very good extent, and this theory is a suitable model for analyzing the linguistic structure of this Surah. In Surah Hud, in order to create a communication process (God, prophets, angels, and others), the speaker must send a specific message to the audience (Prophet, ordinary people, relatives of prophets, and others) to influence the audience through the linguistic structures of that message. In such a conversation, the message must have a specific context to strengthen the communication links between the speaker and the audience and after that, this communication continues with special language tools (speaking and writing).

The act of apology is one of the most important linguistic elements which is influenced greatly by social and cultural conditions. Regardless of the scale of the society, each person performs the act of apology while using particular interpretations or speech acts with respect to the following factors: age, gender, social status, etc. The present research aims to investigate the methods of expressing apologies in Arabic from the perspective of social linguistics. The study is both qualitative and quantitative. The data collected by Dialogue Completion Test (DCT) consists of 150 Arab native speakers of equally divided genders. The questionnaire consists of ten situations in which each person needs to apologize to the other person during his/her life. Also, it should be noted that the variables of the questionnaire are adaptable with respect to the cultures of each society.Arab native speakers were asked to carefully read the questionnaire and imagine themselves in various situations so that they select one or more propositions as their reaction to the situations. The first situation put the person in a moment when he/she has not been able to participate in an invited meeting or party. The frequent responses provided by the participants in such situations have been the profuse act of apology along with persistent justification while requesting the comprehension of the justification and forgiveness from the other side. The second situation puts a person in a moment when he/she is rejecting his friend’s request of borrowing a car by lying that the car is broken but the friend sees through the lie and the person needs to apologize for it. The most frequent form of apologizing for this situation has been the insistent justification. In the third situation, a person imagines that he/she has borrowed a book from his/her friend but the book is torn apart out of carelessness. In this situation, the person has accepted the mistake and proposed compensation. In the next situation, the person has eaten an afternoon brunch to later understand the fact that it belonged to another member of the family. Justification has been the most frequent reaction in this situation. The fifth situation pictures a scene in which a person has arrived late for a meeting with his friend and has put his friend into a long waiting. The most frequent response for such situations has been the profuse act of apology along with justification. In the sixth situation, a person imagines a moment in which one of his/her friends or a member of his/her family asks him/her to buy something but he/she mistakenly buys something else. As such, his/her friend suffers from a loss of money. Simple apologizing, accepting the mistake, and offering compensation for the loss of money have been the most frequent forms of apologizing in such a situation. In the seventh situation, the person imagines having forgotten his/her brother or sister’s birthday while other members of the family have bought a present for the brother or sister. In this case, the brother or sister is really angry over this mistake and the person needs to apologize to the brother or sister. The most frequent expression of apology used in this situation has been to profusely apologize and justify the reason for forgetting the date of the birthday. The eighth situation is the moment when a person is sitting in a ceremony backbiting another while the other person appears and hears the backbiting; therefore, the one who has backbitten needs to apologize to the other person. Again, the most frequent form of apology used in this situation has been to profusely apologize and justify the reason for backbiting. The ninth situation imagines a person who unwittingly hit a valuable vase and causes it to break. Along the same line, the most frequent form of apology used in this situation has been to profusely apologize and bring justification for it. Finally, in the tenth situation, two friends or colleagues are in the middle of a big fight when one loses the end of the rope and says unpleasant words to the other person without any ulterior motive; though the person gets regretful and tries to apologize to the other person. The most frequent form of apology used in this situation has been to profusely apologize to the other person while bringing justification and taking responsibility for the impolite act.Analysis of the results shows that Arab native speakers combine methods when they need to apologize in various situations. For example, they combine keeping their respect and friendships with another person while decreasing the created anger and fury. Moreover, they tend to use verbal apologies which are also more found among women. Women are also more like to justify their mistakes and take responsibility for their actions, though this needs to be noted that men have openly criticized the other side or defied any sort of responsibility over the action which shows their tendency toward power, dominancy, and the maintenance of social status.

With the emergence of discourse analysis in the linguistic arena, critical discourse analysis entered linguistics as a modern method to study cultural and social changes. One of the critical discourse analysis methods is the Practical Discourse Analysis Method (PDAM). This method investigates the hidden and apparent layers of the text by analyzing the four layers of surface-surface, depth-surface, surface-deep, and deep-deep. The surface-surface layer is the uppermost layer of the text which has the external manifestation and consists of expressions, sentences, and terms. The deep-surface layer determines the reason behind the selection of a term, a special kind of combination and grammatical structure by the writer for the reader. The surface-deep layer is the uppermost layer of the depth of the text and is similar to interpretation. In the last layer (i.e. deep-deep), text production is studied in cultural and social structures. The present descriptive-analytical study attempts to analyze three Quranic stories that criticize the ignorant society using the PDAM method. Literature is one of the branches of art that has a crucial role in humanities and gentle feelings. Although people are very different in race, color, body structure, and other qualities, instincts, feelings, and tendencies are similar in all of them. A story can easily stimulate various ranges of human feelings and convince the person by self-awareness to give up moral vices by producing a proper pattern.The language of a story is a language by which the writer can express his purpose simpler and more explicitly because it is understandable for all people. The story is the most consistent form of language that occupy the mind and heart with persuasive messages. Quranic stories relate all kinds of human habits and manners to the repetition of human reactions at any place and at any time. Manners of arrogant people, enemies, pagans, idolaters, and resurrection deniers are such behaviors. Although Quranic stories are for religious guidance and learning, serving religious purposes does not prevent blurting artistic properties in narrating a story because one of the artistic withers of the Holy Quran is story narration.In the divine speech, story scenes are pictured in a way that the reader feels watching the crucial role of the story, living with them, and perceiving their spiritual states such as fear, love, delight, sorrow, and irritation deeply. With these techniques, a person’s motivation will be duplicated in following the story, as if they closely watch them and touch their reasons for aberration.The selected Quranic topics are the common topics in the ignorant society that can be seen in other societies as well. The reader does not separate his fate from the history of the preceding people and is attracted to follow the story. The stories of the Holy Quran are appropriate cases of the conflict between right and wrong, guidance and misguidance, and good and evil. There have been examples of such conflicts in all times and places, while the result has ended in favor of the good people, and humiliation and defeat have been given to the bad people.The variety of the history of the preceding people from the miraculous speech of the divine word illustrates the diversity of the entrenchment of the deniers of God, the many excuses and the application of the same methods of humanity in confronting the monotheistic invitation, which in addition to the encouragement of the Prophet, inspired him by the experiences and reactions of the previous prophets in encountering different ethnic groups.One of the important results of examining the critical discourse on the iconoclasm story of Ibrahim (PBUH) is a kind of instruction to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH); for the action he will take in the conquest of Mecca in not too distant future and crush the installed idols like Ibrahim. In fact, the narration of the story of the iconoclasm of Ibrahim is a kind of promise, hope, and comfort to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). A promise that the defeat of Mecca by Muslims is certain. The difference is that Ibrahim broke the idols in the temple, but Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) broke the idols that were constantly in front of everyone's eyes.One of the important results of the story of Uzir's hundred-year sleep and the part-by-part joining together of Uzir’s donkey is the expression of the quality of the true revival in the resurrection. The important point in the resurrection is the power that can collect the decayed bones and restore them to their original form. Disbelief in this power has been brought up many times under different titles by the people of the time of the Prophet (PBUH).The story of Ibrahim and his technique of worshiping heavenly bodies is like a mirror in which the past, present, and future of Muhammad's invitation can be seen through Ibrahim’s story. In the ignorance era, like the time of Prophet Ibrahim (PBUH), there were various goddesses, and the sun, moon, and stars were among the most common of these goddesses.Analyzing the stories related to the criticism of the ignorant society leads us to the conclusion that belief in different gods, doubts about resurrection, and imitation of ancestors existed in different eras of history. Analyzing the critical discourse of Quranic stories, in addition to instructing the application and benefit of discourse styles, indicates the appropriateness of the issues raised in the ignorant society with modern ignorance. Although in the discussion of theology and the affirmation of unity in creation the verses are based on the proof of order and nature, parables and stories are used more in the issues related to beliefs, societies, ethics, and the expression of traditions and common false habits.

The Arabic language plays an essential role in understanding the Holy Quran and the doubts raised about it, because the text of the Qur'an, like any other Arabic text, is examined through lexical approaches. The Holy Quran is one of the Arabic texts that Muslims and non-Muslims have paid particular attention to it from the very beginning of its revelation until today. This attention is observed more deeply and fundamentally in intellectual and theological disputes. They have tried to interpret and understand it with the various sciences and tools they bear. Among the most important of these sciences are the sciences of the Arabic language (vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and rhetoric) and Islamic Shari'a sciences, which are integrally tied to the sciences of the Arabic language.In order to make a correct inference from the Quranic verses, one must understand them correctly and then extract various rulings and concepts from the verses. If a researcher has a wrong understanding of a verse, he will build a wrong interpretation. Therefore, he should translate and interpret the meanings and concepts of Quranic words and phrases according to Arabic language sciences, the context and connotations of words, and the context of Quranic verses. Therefore, gaining a correct understanding of the words and phrases of the Qur'an, and having sufficient mastery of the sciences of the Qur'an’s language are among the main pillars for deriving concepts from them.Some Iranian critics have written books on the Holy Quran and have dealt with various topics and raised some jurisprudential, theological, and linguistic doubts. Among them, we can mention Masoud Ansari, the author of the book Allah Akbar (1996), Lotfullah Roozbahani, the author of the book Qur'an, the Words of Muhammad (n.d), Ali Dashti, the author of the book Twenty-Three Years (2002), and Soha, the author of the book Criticism of the Qur'an (2014). Despite the scientific criticisms that exist in relation to these books, there is no research dealing with the level of linguistic knowledge of these critics and their books and their evaluation from the mere linguistic aspects. If they used lexical sciences, this utilization was during general criticism and was not independent. To the best of researchers’ knowledge, no study hsd been conducted in relation to the book of Roozbahani (i.e. Qur'an, the Words of Muhammad) so far.The present study, relying on the descriptive-analytical method, intends to examine some of these doubts from the linguistic aspects and analyze them by using Arabic sciences such as sarf, syntax, rhetoric, and semasiology and investigate the negative effects caused by weak vocabulary knowledge. The results of the study show that the aforementioned authors made mistakes in understanding the Quranic verses and violated the divinity of the Holy Quran due to their incorrect understanding, which in most cases was caused by linguistic knowledge weakness. They did not derive the correct meaning of Quranic words based on the rules of pure science and in accordance with authentic Arabic dictionaries. They also translated many of God's names and attributes wrongly. Additionally, they did not understand the meanings and concepts of syntactic combinations of words in Quranic sentences. Inasmuch as they did not have a correct understanding of exceptions in Arabic syntax, they were mistaken in understanding the meaning of this syntax style and its types. In addition, due to not paying attention to the rhetorical styles, they made mistakes in understanding the meaning and concept of Quranic phrases. As they did not know the rhetorical style and the purpose of using it, they objected to the Qur'an. The negative effect of weakness in vocabulary knowledge is that this weakness leads to a weak output and a wrong understanding of the Holy Quran. Obviously, this phenomenon is observed in the doubts of these authors and they have not been successful in understanding the Qur'an. And as a result, they went wrong in their books and theories and had fundamental mistakes in this field.

Reading and understanding serve as a dialogue between the reader and the writer, thus forming the basis for learning any language. If the learner of the second language does not read and understand well, he cannot have a strong conversation most of the time. Therefore, it is necessary to use correct and practical strategies to strengthen and improve this skill. Self-regulatory (metacognitive) strategies provide the ability to learn consciously and reflect on comprehensive performance. The current research was conducted with 34 students of middle-level learners of Arabic language at Farhangian University of Qom. The samples were selected via available sampling. After removing the outliers, the learners’ performances in parallel reading and comprehension tests were analyzed through the quasi-experimental method of pre- and post-test educational interventions and paired t-test, by using SPS software. The results of this study showed that self-regulation strategies played a special role in improving the Arabic language learners’ performances. They gained more abilities to decode the text information, focus on it, and memorize it clearly by learning self-regulation and problem-solving strategies in addition to strengthening their senses of self-confidence.

Knowing the type of translation and understanding its theory, regardless of whether the translator is aware of it or not, allows the reader to grasp the meaning of the translated text in the target language. Although Holmes himself believes that there is no translation of poetry "identical" or "equivalent" to the original, and says that the practical limitations prevent us from obtaining the "equivalent", he identified four strategies that are traditionally used in translating different types of poetry: 1) The strategy of simulation or simulated translation, in which the form of poetry is preserved, 2) Analog strategy, in which a form that is culturally similar to the original poetry is used, 3) The organizational strategy in which the semantic element is allowed to take a unique poetic form during the formation of the translation, and 4) A deviant or irrelevant strategy in which there is no connection or similarity between the form used for poetry in the target language and the form or content of poetry in the source language. Of course, the choice of the strategy itself reflects the target language norms and cultural priorities specific to a particular language. Since Shamlou is considered a pioneer of prose poetry or what is called free poetry and is sometimes called Shamlou’i poetry, it is very difficult to choose a theory that is compatible with analyzing these poems or translating them into any other language because it has abandoned some of the basic components of traditional poetry, especially meter and rhyme, but it has not turned into a text. Scattered because it includes rhythm, intonation, and verbal and moral improvements. And when we choose a theory suitable for studying and translating these poems, we have to take care of both sides. In this study, we aim to criticize Muhammad Noureddine Abdel Moneim's translation of some of Shamlou's poems according to James Holmes' theory and to evaluate the application of the components of this theory to the translation of the above-mentioned poems. Ahmad Shamlou was a poet, film director, journalist, researcher, translator, lexicographer, and one of the trustees of the Iranian Writers' Association. Shamlu’s main fame is due to his innovation in contemporary Persian poetry and the formulation of a type of poetry known as free poetry or Shamloui poetry, which is currently one of the most important forms of poetry prevalent in Iran and is an imitation of French free poetry or vernacular poetry. Since he was a pioneer of free poetry in the Persian language, the translation of his poems requires complete knowledge of this type of poetry, in addition to the poet's mastery of both Persian and Arabic languages. This descriptive-analytical study aims to criticize the method of Muhammad Nureddin Abdel Moneim's translation of some of Ahmed Shamlou's poems in the book Selections from Modern Persian Poetry. Because the poets use the language in the most beautiful and best way to express the feelings and emotions that go through their consciences, the words are incomplete to express their thoughts. Hence, some of them tend to the symbolic language, especially those poets who abandoned meter, rhyme, and performances to reduce as much as possible the obstacles that prevent them from revealing what is inside them. For this reason, free poetry moves away from traditional forms and accepts the use of symbols and signs. And since Ahmed Shamlou's poems were sung in a distinctive style, and are the basis for free poetry, they are replete with terms, symbols, and references, and are full of literary, philosophical, social, and political concepts and contents. It is very difficult to understand these poems, and therefore translating them into Arabic requires the translator to have great skill and multi-dimensional information in both the source and target languages. Muhammad Noureddine Abdel Moneim was able to translate special terms and expressions into the Arabic language due to his sufficient knowledge of the Persian language and his mastery of his mother tongue. He also succeeded, to a considerable extent, in identifying the elements of the sentence correctly and translating them into Arabic, but some of his efforts were not crowned with success, and he sometimes misunderstood the meanings of terms, the semantics of symbols, or defining the pillars of some sentences. The results of the study indicate that the translator relies in his Arabization on the four types of translation according to Holmes' theory and that some of his efforts were unsuccessful. In addition, he sometimes misunderstood the meanings of terms and the semantics of symbols.